A Toolkit for Volunteer Leaders

Leadership

[Styles] [Teamwork] [Conducting Meetings] [Small Group Dynamics] [Personal Goals] [Organizing Committees] [Self Image] [Mentoring] [Decision Making]

Small Group Dynamics L-4

Not all meetings are conducted strictly by Robert's Rules of Order. For smaller, more informal meetings, fewer rules are needed. For some people, few rules are desirable for committee meetings, lunch discussion groups, social meetings or even many educational workshops.

However, without Robert's Rules, a presiding officer or committee chair must be much more skillful in leading the meeting. The leader must be aware of when to abandon Robert's Rules for a more relaxed meeting. The degree and style of leadership may depend heavily on "group maturity." Certainly knowledge of other aspects of group dynamics is very important in leading informal groups.

Since this module is quite long, you may choose to work only on specific parts according to the objectives below.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

After mastering this module, you should be able to:

1. Identify types of meetings within your organization where informal rules of conduct apply.
2. Assess "group maturity."
3. Conduct or evaluate a small group discussion.
4. Plan to use different group techniques for appropriate situations.

EXERCISE: TYPES OF INFORMAL MEETINGS

Take 2-5 minutes to list some of the meetings that you attend which do not use parliamentary procedure. Think of all the different groups that you belong to. Consider:

School
Church
Social
Recreational
Government
Community
Economic
Family

Also consider types of meetings:

Committees
Study Groups
Discussion Groups
Luncheon Meetings
Commissions
Advisory Groups

WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A GROUP

Often external rules, like parliamentary procedure, are less important than "group dynamics." But what does that term imply? How do we recognize "Group dynamics?" We all have experience in groups. Yet we rarely take the time to observe what is happening in those groups. We get involved in the discussion and ignore the dynamics of the group--how it works. If we can become more aware of group dynamics, we can be better observers and better participants.

So what do we look for? What is there to see in a group?

I. Communication

One of the easiest aspects of group process to observe is the pattern of communication.

1. Who talks? For how long? How often?

2. Who do people look at when they talk?

a. Single others, possibly potential supporters

b. Scanning the group

c. No one

3. Who talks after whom, or who interrupts whom?

4. That style of communication is used (assertions, questions, tone of voice, gestures, etc.?)

5.Do people change their participation (become quiet or more talkative or change tone of voice)? Why?

6. How are silent people treated? Is silence due to consent, disagreement, disinterest, fear, fatigue?

The kinds of observations we make give us clues to other important things which may be going on in the group such as who leads whom or who influences whom.

II. Content vs. Process

When we observe what the group is talking about, we are focusing on the content. When we try to observe how the group is handling its communication, i.e., who talks how much or who talks to whom, we are talking about group process. In fact, the content of group discussion often tells us what process issue may be on people's minds. For example:

At a simpler level, looking at process really means to focus on what is going on in the group and trying to understand it in terms of other things that have gone on in the group.

III. Decision

Many kinds of decisions are made in groups without considering the effects these decisions have on other members. Some try to impose their own decisions on the group, while others want all members to participate or share in the decisions that are made. Some decisions are made consciously after much debate and voting. Others are made silently when no one objects to suggestion.

1. Does anyone make a decision and carry it out without checking with other group members (self authorized decision)?

2. Does the group drift from topic to topic with no decision?

3. Who supports other members' suggestions or decisions?

4. Is there any evidence of a majority pushing a decision through over other members' objections? Do they call for a vote (majority decision)?

5. Is there any attempt to get all members to agree before a decision is made (consensus)?

6. Does anyone make any contributions which do not receive any kind of response or recognition (plop)? What effect does this have on the member?

IV. Influence

Some people may speak very little, yet they may capture the attention of the whole group. Others may talk a lot—but other members may pay little attention to them.

1. Which members are high in influence? That is, when they talk others seem to listen.

2. Which members are low in influence? Others do not listen to them or follow them. Is there any shifting of influence?

3. Do you see any rivalry in the group? Is there a struggle for leadership? What effect does it have on other group members?

V. Task vs. Relationships

The group's task is the job to be done. People who are concerned with the task tend to

1. make suggestions as to the best way to proceed or deal with a problem;

2. attempt to summarize what has been covered or what has been going on in the group;

3. give or ask for facts, ideas, opinions, feelings, feedback, or search for alternatives;

4. keep the group on target; prevent going off on tangents.

Relationships means how well people in the group work together. People who are concerned with relationships tend to

1. be more concerned with how people feel than how much they know;

2. help others get into the discussion;

3. try to reconcile disagreements;

4. encourage people with friendly remarks and gestures.

VI. Roles

Behavior in the group can be of three types:

1. that which helps the group accomplish its task;

2. that which helps group members get along better (relationships); and

3. self oriented behavior which contributes to neither group task nor group relationships. Examples of these types of behavior, called roles, are:

Task Roles

1. Initiating: proposing tasks or goals; defining a group problem; suggesting ways to solve a problem.

2. Seeking information or opinions: requesting facts; asking for expressions of feeling; requesting a statement or estimate; seeking suggestions and ideas.

3. Giving information or opinion: offering facts; providing relevant information; stating an opinion; giving suggestions and ideas.

4. Clarifying and elaborating: interpreting ideas or suggestions; clearing up confusion; defining terms; indicating alternatives and issues before the group.

5. Summarizing: pulling together related ideas; restating suggestions after the group has discussed them; offering a decision or conclusion for the group to accept or reject.

6. Consensus testing: asking if the group is nearing a decision; taking a straw vote."

Relationship Roles

1. Harmonizing: attempting to reconcile disagreements; reducing tension; getting people to explore differences.

2. Gate keeping: helping to keep communication channels open; facilitating the participation of others; suggesting procedures that permit sharing remarks.

3. Encouraging: being friendly, warm, and responsive to others; indicating by facial expression or remarks the acceptance of others' contributions.

4. Compromising: when one's own idea or status is involved in a conflict, offering a compromise which yields status; admitting error; modifying one's position in the interest of group cohesion or growth.

Self-Oriented Roles

1. Dominator: interrupts others; launches on long monologues; is over-positive and over- dogmatic; tries to lead group and assert authority; is generally autocratic.

2. Negativist: rejects ideas suggested by others; takes a negative attitude on issues; argues frequently and unnecessarily; is pessimistic, refuses to cooperate; pouts.

3. Aggressor: tries to achieve importance in group; boasts; criticizes or blames others; tries to get attention; shows anger or irritation against group or individuals; deflates importance or position of others in group.

4. Playboy: is not interested in the group except as it can help him or her to have a good time.

5. Storyteller: likes to tell long "fishing stories" which are not relevant to the group; gets off on long tangents.

6. Interrupter: talks over others; engages in side conversations; whispers to neighbor.

7. Poor me: tries to get the group's attention to deal with own personal concerns, discomfort, bad luck, etc.

A group member who can play a variety of task and relationship roles and can avoid self oriented roles will be most helpful to the group.

VII. Membership

One major concern for group members is the degree of acceptance or inclusion they feel in the group.

1. Are there any sub-groupings? Sometimes two or three members may consistently agree and support each other or consistently disagree and oppose one another.

2. Do some people seem to be outside the group? Do some members seem to be "in"? How are those "outside" treated?

3. Do some members move in and out of the group? Under what conditions do they move in and out?

VIII. Feelings

During any group discussion, feelings are frequently generated by the interactions between members. These feelings, however, are seldom talked about. Observers may have to make guesses based on tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and many other forms of nonverbal cues.

1.What signs of feelings do you observe in group members? Anger, irritation, frustration, warmth, affection, excitement, boredom, defensiveness, competitiveness, etc.

2. Do you see any attempts by group members to block the expression of feelings, particularly negative feelings? How is this done? Does anyone do this consistently?

IX. Norms

Standard or group rules always develop in a group in order to control the behavior of members. Norms usually express the beliefs or desires of the majority of the group members as to what behaviors should or should not take place in the group. These norms may be clear to all members (explicit), known or sensed by only a few (implicit), or operating completely below the level of awareness of any group members. Some norms help group progress and some hinder it.

1. Are certain areas avoided by the group (eg., sex, religion, talk about present feelings, about others in the group, discussion of leader's behavior, etc.)? Who seems to reinforce this avoidance? How do they do it?

2. Are the group members overly nice or polite to each other? Are only positive feelings expressed? Do members agree with each other too readily? What happens when members disagree?

3. Do you see norms operating about participation or the kinds of questions that are allowed? (e.g., "If I talk you must talk"; "If I tell my problems you have to tell your problems"). Do members feel free to probe each other about their feelings? Do questions tend to be restricted to intellectual topics or events outside the group?

X. Group Atmosphere

Something about the way a group works creates an atmosphere which in turn is revealed in a general impression. Insight can be gained into the atmosphere characteristic of a group by finding words which describe the general impression held by group members.

1. Is the atmosphere one of work, play, satisfaction, taking flight, sluggish, tense, etc.

2. Who seems to prefer a friendly congenial atmosphere? Is there any attempt to suppress conflict or unpleasant feelings?

3. Who seems to prefer an atmosphere of conflict and disagreement? Do any members provoke or annoy others?

XI. Group Maturity

Group maturity is defined as the ability and willingness of group members to set goals and work toward their accomplishment.

Characteristics of a Mature Group

1. An increasing ability to be self-directed (not dependent on the leader).

2. An increased tolerance in accepting that progress takes time.

3. An increasing sensitivity to their own feelings and those of others.

4. Improvement in the ability to withstand tension, frustration and disagreement.

5. A perception of the common denominators which bind the group as well as areas of individual difference.

6. A better ability to anticipate realistic results of behavior and to channel emotions into more socially acceptable ways of expressing these emotions.

7. An increased ability to change plans and methods as new situations develop.

8. A decrease in time needed to recover from threatening group situations. Peaks and valleys of emotional group crises become less personal.

9. Increased efficiency in locating problems, engaging in problem solving and providing help to individuals as needed.

10. A willingness to face one's own responsibilities and to assist others when help is needed.

11. An acceptance of the right of the other person to be different.

Assessing group maturity is especially important for a group leader. An immature group needs direction. Directive leadership is usually best. If a group is very mature, nondirective leadership is usually best. In between the extremes of very mature and very immature, democratic leadership will be the best bet depending on the situation (see module L-1).

STUDY GROUP EXERCISE:

Enough theory! It's time for some experience. Form small groups of 5-10 members. For the next 20 minutes you are going to have a group discussion to choose a new logo to represent this group. Your group task is to use the next 20 minutes to design your own logo. You may use symbols found in business, organizations, or sports teams that you know about, or design something from scratch. There are no rules as to "how" you go about this task. However, you should choose a group observer who uses the Observation Sheet below to record group interaction. This group observer also keeps track of the 20 minute time limit. When you are ready, START.

Individual Participation in Group Discussion

Group members:

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What happened in your group?

2. Did it complete its task? Why or why not?

3. Was the group productive?

4. Was everyone completely comfortable?

5. Who were the "leaders" in the group? (Remember, a leader is anyone who helps the group, at any point, to set goals or work productively toward those goals).

6. How could this group improve?

7. What did you observe in your group concerning

a. communication,
b. content vs. process,
c. decisions,
d. influence,
e. task vs. relationships,
f. roles,
g. membership,
h. feelings,
i. norms,
j. group atmosphere?

Refer back to the section on "What to Look for in a Group" if needed.

8. If you were assigned to lead your group with the same task, how would you have acted?

LEADING SMALL GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Most small groups will have one member designated to lead the discussion. If that member is you, then you need to be prepared.

Your Job as Discussion Leader

The best discussion leader is one who can get others to talk. A talkative leader usually cuts down on the group members' participation. Your job is to:

• arrange the group so they are sitting as close together as possible, and can see each other;
• get others' ideas out for consideration;
• keep the group on the subject;
• encourage everyone to participate;
• watch the time so you can cover the discussion questions of most interest to your group;
• summarize important points; and
• allow time for the "wrap-up."

The following three sections spotlight some steps in a discussion that are particularly important to handle well.

Parts of the Discussion...setting the stage

As a discussion leader, you:

• see that everyone is introduced;
• select a recorder if one has not been appointed;
• explain what the discussion group is expected to accomplish;
• try to be friendly and good-natured, but show you mean business;
• lay the ground rules:
  • everyone is expected to stay on the subject;
  • no one dominates the discussion—no long talks;
  • each member will have a chance to participate;
  • the purpose of the discussion is not to come up with one "right" answer.
• explain that your role is to:
  • withhold your own opinion;
  • try to keep the group on the subject;
  • assist the recorder in summarizing the discussion.
• ask if there are any questions.

Parts of the Discussion...leading the discussion

Everyone should participate in the discussion. However, some groups expect the leader to do most of the talking, and may remain silent at the beginning of the discussion. Your job is to get them to do the talking. To do that:

• ask the group members for first reactions or general impressions on the topic.
• if you have prepared discussion questions, ask someone to read the first discussion question. If you do not have prepared questions, have the members raise some that they would like to discuss.
• if there is a silence, try to wait out the group members. Remain silent 2 or 3 minutes. Usually, someone will say something. This puts the responsibility on the group members, and takes it off your shoulders.
• your occasional nod or "uh-huh" will encourage more response, but there should not be comment on each response.
• as a last resort, ask someone to respond.

Once the discussion is going, the leader can best help the group by letting the group members do the talking. Try to bring everyone into the discussion and keep it on the subject.

If problems arise during the discussion, check the "What to do if" section (below). Otherwise, sit back and make an occasional summary of the discussion. Five minutes before the end of the discussion, wrap up the discussion 

Parts of the Discussion...wrapping up

If the discussion was good, say, "We had a good discussion," OR if it didn't go so well, find something good to say about it.
Repeat briefly the purpose of the discussion. Say, "In our discussion, we were asked to ....."
Ask the group to summarize the important points. Say, "What do you think are the important points we have made?"
Ask the recorder to read the report back to the group.

What To Do If...the group can't get started

Try having someone rephrase the discussion topics.
Go around the group asking if someone has a response.
Ask one of the resource people to tell more about the topic. Go on to another discussion topic. Ask another group member to introduce it.

What To Do If...someone dominates the discussion

Ask, "How do the rest of you feel about that idea?"
Say, "Okay, that's a good point; may we move on to someone else?"
Point out the problem by saying, "We have heard from .....let's hear from some of the rest of you."
Go around the group again, asking if someone has a response.
As a last resort, restate the ground rules.

What To Do If...the group gets off the subject

Ask, "Are we off the subject?"
Say, "We're talking about , but our topic is supposed to be___."

What To Do If...interest lags

Be sure the discussion does not remain too long on a single point. Say, "Have we covered that point and may we go on?"
Is someone dominating the discussion? See section on "What to do if...someone dominates the discussion." 
If no one talks for a while, the leader need not step in—sometimes people need time to think.
Maybe people need more information. Say, "Do we have enough information? Should we call on a resource person at this point?" Or, "Is this an area we will need to study on our own?"

What To Do If...discussion gets too heated

Say, "We have two viewpoints here. Are there any other views?"
Emphasize the importance of getting many viewpoints.
Say, "This really isn't the place where we can settle that issue, so maybe we should move on to the next topic." 
Remind the group that in this discussion we aren't looking for one right answer. Differing views are welcome.

EXERCISE:

 Take turns leading and evaluating group discussion. Write several discussion topics on slips of paper. Choose topics that are issues of concern to group members. Examples:

 - What position should our group take on the new bond issue?

 - How might our club improve its image?

 - How could U.S.-China relations be improved?

 Get a volunteer to be the first leader. Get a second volunteer to evaluate the discussion leader. Give both volunteers time to read the following checklist:

 Did the discussion leader:

 ___Introduce the issue creating interest?

 ___Organize the discussion so the major points were taken up in the most effective order?

 ___Encourage all to participate?

 ___Encourage informality?

 ___Relate the issue to concerns of individual members?

 ___Ask clear, concise questions?

 ___Ask thought-provoking questions?

 ___Arrange for a break during long sessions?

 ___Lead members of the group to see that they were making progress?

 ___Summarize occasionally?

 ___Close discussion with generalizations, conclusions and applications?

 ___Manage to do all of the above without seeming to dominate?

Everyone else is a group member. When the leader and evaluator are ready, start the discussion. Each discussion should be allowed to go for about five minutes, followed by the evaluator's report from the checklist. As time allows, each member should have a chance to be a discussion leader and an evaluator.

EXERCISE: GROUP RULES

Some small groups have recurring problems with their group discussion.

When this happens, a printed agenda with ground rules can be given to group members. Read the following example, then write your own ground rules for a meeting that you attend where ground rules would be helpful.

YAVAPAI DISTRICT III NUCLEUS MEETING

 May 20, 19__ - 7:00 p.m., County Building, Cottonwood, AZ 

AGENDA

 Introductions

 Objectives:

• To help make County government more efficient and more responsive.
• To improve communication between County officials and representatives of unincorporated communities of District III.
• To improve communication among representatives of unincorporated communities.

Purpose: Identify problems and refer to proper agency.

Ground Rules:

• Keep it positive—not a gripe session
• Avoid political soapbox
• Allow the written questions to be answered beforegoing to open forum
• Avoid repetition in questions/comments. Make them brief.

 Supervisor's Report
Questions Sent In
Open Forum
Schedule Next Meeting: Date _____, Time_____,Place__________.

GROUP TECHNIQUES

To be an effective group leader in all situations, you need an arsenal of techniques to use when appropriate. The following pages present some techniques. With preparation and practice, you will gain competence in choosing and using the best technique for a particular situation.

I.Common Forms of Presentations include:

A. LECTURE - an oral presentation of organized thoughts and ideas by a speaker.

B. SYMPOSIUM - a formal presentation by several platform speakers.

C. PANEL DISCUSSION - a presentation by several persons who discuss a topic in which they have a special knowledge.

D. COLLOQUY - the presentation of a problem by members of the audience to be discussed by a group of experts who may ask questions or make comments regarding the presentation.

 One of the most commonly used (and misused) of these techniques is the panel discussion. A panel refers to the discussion of a topic by a selected group of 3 to 6 people under the direction of a moderator. It can be a very effective technique in bringing out different facts and points of view on a given topic.

Select panel members with care, to include: 1) persons vitally interested in the topic; 2) persons who have different views, experiences and sources of information on the subject to be discussed; 3) persons willing to express themselves before a group.

The moderator must remain neutral. He or she: 1) sets time limits for the discussion; 2) opens the discussion with a question or statement that focuses attention on the central point(s) to be discussed; 3) asks questions, as needed to help clarify points made; 4) interrupts when necessary to keep the discussion on track; 5) periodically summarizes; 6) keeps the discussion moving so that all points are covered in the allotted time; and 7) insures that panel members share the allotted time equally, with no one dominating.

A panel commonly begins with each member stating a position. Then group members react to and ask questions of each other. Panel members should prepare their introductory statements but not rehearse with each other. Panels shorter than 20 minutes seldom succeed, and group interest tends to wane if longer than 40 minutes.

 II.Small Group Discussion Techniques include:

 A. CO-LEADERS IN GROUP DISCUSSIONS - the use of a team approach of two or more persons in leading a discussion.

 B. HUDDLE GROUPS or BUZZ GROUPS - the use of a group of 3-7 persons who discuss a problem or issue and then reporting to a larger group.

 C. LEADERSHIP TEAM - the use of a group of four persons to conduct a discussion as follows: discussion leader; process observer; recorder; and resource person.

 D. LISTENING TEAM - the use of two to four persons who listen, evaluate, and then pose questions to persons who have made a formal presentation. 

E. ROLE PLAYING - the use of persons who act out a situation in order to promote additional insights or deeper emotional feelings.

F. BRAINSTORMING - the use of free expression for creative thinking without the influence of judicial reasoning (see separate module on "brainstorming" in the section on "learning/teaching techniques"). 

G. DIADS - the use of pairs to interview each other or clarify their own ideas.

H. ROUND ROBIN SHARING - each group member in turn briefly share ideas, opinions, suggestions or concerns in response to a question raised.  

Small group interaction brings about greater cooperation, consensus and commitment among participants than is possible in a larger group. Small groups permit leadership responsibility to be shared by all who contribute.  

Some considerations in making small group discussion effective are:
1)provide the group with pertinent facts and background information on the problem or issue to be discussed before breaking into small groups;
2) divide into small groups by counting off to insure heterogeneous groups;
3) clearly define the group assignment, and post it for all to see; and
4)Set a time limit at which time reports will be called for.

Round-Robin Sharing needs more explanation. Start by passing out index cards, and having each person jot down brief suggestions, opinions, concerns in response to the question posed by the group leader. This writing exercise gives people time to think. It helps each person clarify what is important. Also, people are often more willing to write something down and then read it, than they are to speak spontaneously. This writing exercise is particularly useful in setting goals.

As each person shares an opinion, concern, suggestion, list them on newsprint or a blackboard for all to see. This clearly shows the individual that he has been heard. It avoids miscommunication. It gives the person immediate recognition. It reduces the tendency of people to repeat themselves. And it also serves as an official record of the meeting. 

An important ground rule: instruct the group that during the round-robin sharing no discussion is permitted—except for questions of clarification, i.e., "What did you mean by...?" It should be stressed that the purpose of the round-robin is to share, to listen, to empathize, and try to understand and appreciate the opinions of others. Its purpose is not to discuss, argue the pros and cons of, or refute the opinions, suggestions and concerns expressed. There will be time for that later. This approach insures input from everyone in the group. It encourages people to speak up without the fear of being criticized or put down by others. Also, it prevents any individual from dominating the discussion. It directly involves all members in the decision-making process.

 III.Special Techniques to Improve Meetings include:

A. Stop Session;

B. Verbal or Written Reports;

C. Study Committee; and

D. Negative Voting.

A Stop Session is taking a break when things get heated or bogged down. It involves putting aside the "content" of the discussion for a couple of minutes to focus on the "dynamics" of the group—what is happening within the group. A stop session can be called at any time that problems arise, i.e., "I feel uncomfortable about...How do the rest of you feel?" or "Hey, the negativism in this room is tremendous. Let's take a look at it." or "We seem to have reached a stand-off. Let's take a break and then come back and do some brainstorming. Maybe we can find another approach that would be acceptable to both sides." Open acknowledgment of the problem/frustration before the group, followed by a short rest, can be quite therapeutical.

Verbal or Written Reports should present all sides of an issue, not just your own point of view. Don't stack the deck. One of the worst traps that people fall into when they make a report is to offer only their conclusions, thereby excluding group members from how they arrived at their conclusions.

Prepare your audience. Clearly state at the beginning of your presentation why you are giving it, and what you want people to do with it. Keep to the essential points. Don't overload. Reports should not exceed 5 to 15 minutes in duration. A rule of thumb: If it takes more than 60 seconds to explain a point, you are telling a story rather than giving necessary information.

Seek feedback. Communication is a two-way street. You haven't communicated until you know that others in the group have heard you correctly and comprehend what you meant. Use visuals. People retain 10% of information received verbally; 20% of information received visually; and 50% of information received verbally and visually. Be prepared. Take time before the meeting to think through what you want to say and how you wish to say it. Don't try to "ad lib" it.

Study Committees are formed to gather information and/or make recommendations for consideration by the total group. Due to their small size, usually 3 to 7 members, committees are easier to convene and are more flexible in their ability to gather information, consult with outside experts, and perform the tasks assigned them.

Study committee members and their chair should be carefully hand picked" for the job. The committee should include: 1) persons vitally interested in the task; 2) persons with access to the information desired; 3) persons with pertinent knowledge, skills and experiences.

The committee's "charge," what it is expected to do and when it is to be finished, along with the committee's powers and operating budget should be clearly spelled out, preferably in writing. Be specific. Vague, hastily conceived, indefinite task assignments are the prime cause of committee failure. 

Every member of the committee should have the opportunity to review and react to the final report before it is submitted to the parent group. Every effort should be made to reach consensus. If consensus is not possible, a minority report should be made stating the reasons for dissent from the majority view.

Negative Voting can often be effective when a group is equally divided over several proposed solutions. Ask members which solution they cannot accept and ask them to be sure they have a sound objection. Eliminate those solutions which a majority of the group cannot accept.

IV. Summary

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

Which group technique would you use

• for an icebreaker to get strangers better acquainted,
• when you have four outside experts who have four contrasting solutions to a local problem
• when you need to come up with fresh ideas for an old problem,
• when your club has split into two antagonistic groups over an issue and both groups reject compromise,
• (add your own situations).

CONCLUSION

Leading small group discussions takes practice. Re-read the sections of this chapter and apply them whenever you have an opportunity to lead a small group. Use the buddy system—someone you can trust to help you anticipate and prepare in advance then evaluate after the group has met.

 REFERENCES

• "Committees: A Key to Group Leadership," by Sheldon Lowry, North Central Regional Extension Publication No. 18.

  How to Make Meetings Work, by Doyle and Straus, Wyden Books, 1976, pages 256-268.

  Leadership and Dynamic Group Action, by Beal, Bohlen and Raudabaugh, Iowa State University Press, 1962, pages 206-213.

  Taking Your Meetings Out of the Doldrums, by Eva Schindler-Rainman and Ronald Lippitt, University Associates, 1977.